General Studies

HISTORY: Indus Valley Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization:By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square miles, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sindh and the Makran coast. It was a highly developed civilization and derived its name from the main river of that region— Indus.

Important Discoveries:
- 1921- Harappa:- Dayaram Sahni
- 1922: Mohenjodaro:- R. D. Banerjee
- 1927: Sutkagendor:- R. L. Staine
- 1931: Chanhudaro :- N. G. Majumdar
- 1953: Rangpur :- M. Vats
- 1953: Kalibangan :- A. Ghosh
- 1955-56: Ropar :- Y. D. Sharma
- 1957: Lothal :- S. R. Rao
- 1972-75: Surkotada :-I. Joshi
- 1973-74: Banwali :- R. S. Bisht
- Dholavira Rann of Kachh (Gujarat):- R. S. Bisht
- Ganverivala , Pakistan:- Rafeeq Mugal
- RakhiGarhi Jeend (Haryana):- Rafeeq Mugal
The first mention of the possibility of the Harappan civilization was made as early as 1826, by Charles Masen.
The Civilization was named “Indus Valley Civilization” by Sir John Marshal (1924), after its discovery by Daya Ram Sahni and Vatsa in 1921-22.The maximum number of sites were explored by S.R. Rao, in Gujarat (190 sites). Around 2600 sites have been found and at present there are over 350 sites which have been excavated. Maximum sites found in Haryana.
Extent of Indus Valley Civilization: As per latest estimates, Indus Valley Civilization encompassed a staggering 1.5 million sq km area in the North west of Indian subcontinrent.
- Eastern-most limit-Alamgirpur of Western UP.
- Southern-most limit-Daimabad of Maharastra.
- Northern-most limit-Shortugai of Afganistan.
- Western-most limit-Sutkangendor of Makaran coast.
The largest Indus Valley Civilization site is Mohenjodaro. The smallest site is Allahdino. The largest sites in India are Dholavira, Rakhigarhi.
Society:
- The best information on social life comes from the terracota figures. The Indus Valley Civilization was probably ruled by the merchant class. The weapons used were: axes, bows, arrows and Gada. No defensive weapons have been found here. No swords were discovered. They are considered to be overall a peaceloving race.
- There was a clear cut rich-poor division as indicated by town planning and burial practises.
  Three forms of burials are found at Mohenjodaro, viz. complete burials. fractional burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts birds) and post-cremation burials. But the general practice was extended inhumation, the body lying on us back, with the head generally to the north. Four pot burials containing bone ashes were discovered at Surkatoda. Bodies were found buried in oval pits at Ropar.
- The cemetery R37, containing 57 burials, is located at Harappa.
Religion:
- The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each lacing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feel.
- The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms.
- There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of the phallus, have been discovered.
- The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal. Kalibangan and Harappa.
- Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (piapal, etc.) and animals (unicorn etc)
- Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.
- The Harappans didn't have an organized religious system. They didn't construct any temple.
Trade:
- Inter regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, South India, parts of Western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
- Foreign trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia and Bahrain.
- Trade was carried on by overland as well as overseas transport. Bullock carts and pack-oxen were employed for land transport. There is evidence of sea and river transport by ships and boats in several seals and terracotta models, apart from the dockyard at Lothal.
- The excavation of Lothal, an Indus port town located off the Gujarat coast, shattered notions that the Civilization was landlocked and isolated. A 700 ft long dock's-even bigger than the one's in many present day ports has been discovered. It took an estimated million bricks to build. Hundreds of seals were found, some showing Persian Gulf origin, indicating that Lothal was a major port of exit and entry.
- Outside the Indus system a few sites occur on the Makran Coast (Pakistan- Iran border), the westernmost of which is at Sutkagen Dor, near the modern frontier with Iran. These sites were probably ports or trading posts, supporting the sea trade with the Persian Gulf, and were established in what otherwise remained a argely separate cultural region. The uplands of Baluchistan, while showing clear evidence of trade and contact with the Indus Civilization, appear to have remained outside the direct Harappan rule.
- The Sumerian texts refer lo trade relations with Meluha which was the ancient name given to Indus region and they also speak of two intermediate stations called Dilmun (identified with Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast).
- Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.
- The Mesopotamian king, whose date is known with certainty (2,350 B.C.), who claimed that ships from Indus Valley Civilization traded with him was King Sargon of Akkad.
Measurement:
- The articles used for weights show that in weighing 16 or its multiples were used. Weights were made up of chert, lime stone and steatite.
Town Planning:
- The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the other much larger but lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel or Acropolis and the Lower Town respectively. The same type of layout, with a separate acropolis and lower city is found at Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Kalibangan. At major three sites excavated, the citadel mound is on a north-south axis and about twice as long as it is broad. The lower city is laid out in a grid pattern of streets; at Kalibangan these were of regularly controlled widths, with the major streets running through, while the minor lanes were sometimes offset, creating different sizes of blocks. At all three sites the citadel was protected by a massive, defensive wall of brick, which at Kalibangan was strengthened at intervals by square or rectangular bastions. In all three cases the city was situated near a river, although in modern times the rivers have deserted their former courses.
- The citadel and the lower city are joined at Surkatoda and Banawali. Chanhudaro had no citadel. The shape of citadel at Lothal is trapezium.
- Three divisions of town were discovered at Dholavira and both upper and middle towns are fortified. The town which resembles European castles (due to stone masonry) is Dholavira.The only site where guard rooms were provided at gates is Dholavira.
- The town which shows marked differences in its town planning and drainage system from other Indus Valley Civilization sites is Banawali.
- The Indus ValleyCivilization site where houses are built just next to the wall is Desalpur. The towns which resemble castles of merchants are Desalpur, Rojdi,Balukot.
- Lothal is famous for warehouse, granary, merchant's house, besides its warehouse.
- One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them. If domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains, every house needed to have at least one wall along a street.
- Houses never opened towards the main roads. They opened towards the galis. Exception is houses found in Lothal.
Domestic architecture:
- The most common building material at every site was brick, but the proportions of burned brick to unburned mud brick vary. Mohenjo-daro employs burned brick, perhaps because timber was more readily available, while mud brick was reserved for fillings and mass work. Kalibangan, on the other hand, reserved burned brick for bathrooms, wells, and drains. Most of the domestic architecture at Kalibangan was in mud brick.
- The bathrooms of houses made during the time were usually indicated by the fine quality of the brickwork in the floor and by waste drains.
- A house floor containing the design of intersecting circles was found at Kalibangan. The houses were constructed on the pattern of gridiron (chess). A huge palace-like building has been found at Banawali.
- Important measurements:
  - Great Bath: 12 m x 7 m x 2.4 m.
  - Hammam/Granary: 46 m x 23 m.
  - Collegiate building: 10 m square court.
  - Cubical bricks:10 x 20 x 40 cm3.
  - Average brick size: 5.5 x 12.5 x 26 cm.
  - Ratio of length, breadth and height of bricks: 4 : 2 : 1.
  - Larger bricks to cover drains: 51 cm (+).
  - Stone weights used for trade were in the denominations of: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ..... 160 and decimal multiples of 16. Eg. 16, 320, 6400, 8000, 12800, etc.
  - Length was generally measured in: Foot (37.6 cm) and cubit (52 cm approx).
  - Granary at Lothal: 214 x 36 x 4.5 m.
  - Harappan storehouse: 50 m x 40 m, with a 7 m central passage.
Economic Life:
- Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).
- Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.
- Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan. Water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.
- Wheat and barly were main crops in Punjab, Sind and Rajasthan. While jowar, bajra and ragi were cultivated in Gujrat.
- Rice husk was discovered in Lothal, Rakhigarhi and Rangpur .
- Important fruits were coconut, banana.
- Evidence of cotton come from Mohenjodaro, Lothal and Alamgirpur.
- There is a evidence of fish-hooks also.
Political Organisation:
- Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce than the conquests(winning), and Harappans was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
Art & Crafts:
- The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of stone with gold caps. The shapes were numerous – disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented. Some were decorated by incising or painting, and some had designs etched onto them.
- A crucible for making bronze articles was discovered at Harappa. Maximum bronze figures have been found in Mohenjodaro. The Bronze dancing girl was found in Mohenjodaro. Mostly limestone was used for sculptures. Limestone sculpture of a seated male priest was found at Mohenjodaro. The only place where pottery depicting humans has been found is in Harappa. Pottery inkpots and writing tablets (leafs) were found at Chanhudaro. War-tools made of copper and bronze were discovered at Mohenjodaro.
  A terracota model of a ship was found at Lothal. A seat latrine has been found at Mohenjodaro. This is also true of the two small male torsos discovered in Harappa.
- In Dholavira (Rann of Kutch, Gujarat) Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has found elaborate stone gateways with rounded columns, apart from giant reservoirs for water. A board inlaid with large Harappan script characters' probably the world's first hoardings was also found here.
- Metals:The most extensively used metal in Indus Valley Civilization was pure copper (unalloyed copper).The metal which made earliest appearance during the Indus Valley Civilization was Silver. The Harappans obtained raw material from outside The various minerals (metals) used by Indus Valley Civilization people and their sources are: Silver from Afghanistan and Iran and Iraq; Lead from Kashmir, Rajasthan, etc.; Gold from Karnataka; Copper from Rajasthan; Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan. Iron was not known to Indus Valley Civilization people.
Tools and Implements:
- They used tools made up of copper, bronze and stone. Stone tools were also in common use. They were produced on a large scale in factory sites like Sukkur in Sind . Agricultural implements were found in Mohenjodaro. Cotton spindles, (and sewing needles) have been found in Mohenjodaro.
Pottery:
- Harappan Pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well baked.
- It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the plain variety being more common.
- Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised, perforated and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world.
- On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch. Pots were generally decorated with the designs of trees and circles.The only place where pottery depicting humans has been found is in Harappa.
Seals:
- Seals are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people.
- Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone) with figurines and letters in Harappan scripts. The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white luster was a unique invention of the Harappans. The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short inscription.Unicorn is the animal most frequently represented on the seals. Other animals are ox, brahmi bull, elephant, buffalo, antilope. Horse, cow and lion are not depicted.
- Maximum number of seals have been found in Mohenjodaro (57%). Second maximum at Harappa (36%). The Garuda is depicted on a seal from Harappa. The Sumerian Gilgamesh seal also shows two tigers. Persian-gulf seal was found at Lothal and it is a button seal.
- A Tiger seal was found at Banawali. 34. Iraqi cylindrical seal was found at Mohenjodaro.
  The seals depicting the lord Pasupati Siva, Sumerian Gilgamesh and his two lions were found at Mohenjodaro.The major seal producing units were at Chanhudaro.
Script and Language:
- Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and a variety of human forms. The script was boustrophedon. written from right to left in one line and then from left to right in the next line. The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600. the inscription of maximum letters(26) recovered from Mohenjodaro.
- The language of the Harappans is still unknown and must remain so until the Harappan script is deciphered(Converted from cryptic to intelligible language).
Animals:
- Known animals were bull, dog, rabbit and bird. The Garuda is depicted on a seal from Harappa.Evidence of the rhinoceros comes from Amri and Kalibangan. The Sumerian Gilgamesh seal also shows two tigers. The interesting evidences about the horse during Indus Valley Civilization are:
  - Horse bones have been found in Surkatoda.
  - Horse tooth has been found in Ranaghudai.
  - Terracota figure of a horse has been found in Lothal.
  - Ashes of a horse have been found in Suktagendor.
The End of the Civilisation:
- After 2000 BC, the Indus culture slowly declined and gradually faded out. Some ascribe this to the decreasing fertility of the soil.
- Still others point out that the Aryans destroyed it. According to some scholars, decline of trade, particularly oceanic trade with the Sumerians, must have contributed partly in the decline.
- Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this civilization, the most accepted version is that of ecological destruction.

SOME IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES:

Mohenjodaro:
- Mohenjodaro is located on the banks of Indus river.It is the largest of all Indus citie.
- In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjodaro means 'mound of the dead’.
- The site of Mohenjodaro was constructed at least seven times.
- Stupa, great bath, college, Hammam, granary and assembly hall belong to Mohenjodaro.
- The Great Bath is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length) X 23 feet (breadth) X 8 feet (depth). Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. It must have served as a ritual-bathing site.
- Maximum number of seals have been found in Mohendojaro (57%).
- Maximum bronze figures have been found in Mohenjodaro.
- The Bronze dancing girl, limestone sculpture of a seated male priest, war-tools made of copper and bronze, a seat latrine , the seals depicting the lord Pasupati Siva, Sumerian Gilgamesh and his two lions , agricultural implements, Cotton spindles, (and sewing needles) were found in Mohenjodaro.
- There is surprisingly little evidence of public places of worship, although at Mohenjo-daro a number of possible temples were unearthed in the lower city, and other buildings of a ritual character were reported in the citadel.
Harappa:
- Harappa is located on the banks of river Ravi, was the first site to be excavated.
- The Great Granary measuring 1 69 ft x 3 5 feet is the largest and the most remarkable structure found at Harappa.
- So far 891 seals have been recovered from Harappa, and that is 40% of the total number of seals belonging to Indus Valley Civilization that have been found.
- A red sandstone naked male torso has been found, which shows traces of Jainism
- Between the granary and the citadel, have also been found a series of circular platforms, probably for the pounding of grain
- At a lower level below the granary, platforms and the citadel were crowded one-room dwellings, which suggest slave habitats.
- The cemetery R37, containing 57 burials, is located at Harappa.
- The site where oxendriven carts were found was Harappa.
Kalibangan:(Gujrat)
- Kalibangan is located on the banks of river Ghaggar/Saraswati.
- Has pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phases.
- Less developed compared to Mohenjodaro
- There is evidence of mud-brick fortification of Pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed unlike the Harappan period.
- Archaeologists have discovered two platforms (within the citadel) with fire altars suggesting the practice of cult sacrifice
- The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub
- Stone rubble has been used at Kalibangan. Evidence of the rhinoceros comes from Amri and Kalibangan. It also tells us that there was plenty of rainfall there.
Chanhudaro:
- Chanhudaro is located on Indus/Sutlej;
- Only Indus city without a citadel.
- Pottery inkpots and writing tablets (leafs) were found here.
- Excavations reveal that people of Chanhudaro were expert craftsmen. archaeologists have discovered here metalworkers’,shell-ornament makers’ and bead-makers’ shops
- The city was twice destroyed by inundations.Here more extensive but indirect evidenceof super-imposition of a barbarian lifestyle is seen
- The major seal producing units were at Chanhudaro. Bead-maker's shop and equipments were found at Chanhudaro.
Dholavira: Rann of Kutch, Gujarat
- It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana
- The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts — Citadel and the Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications.
- There are two inner enclosures — the first one hemmed in the citadel (which probably housed the highest authority)and the second one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the rulers and other officials). The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the real exclusive feature of this city.
- The town which resembles European castles (due to stone masonry) is Dholavira.
- The only site where guard rooms were provided at gates is Dholavira. In Dholavira (Rann of Kutch, Gujarat) Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has found elaborate stone gateways with rounded columns, apart from giant reservoirs for water. A board inlaid with large Harappan script characters probably the world's first hoardings was also found here.

Lothal:
- Lothal is located on Bhogavo
- Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection.
- Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC) The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad.
- Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found
- A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here
- The shape of citadel at Lothal is trapezium. An atta chakki (grinding stone) was discovered at Lothal.A terracota model of a ship was found at Lothal.Rice husk was discovered in Lothal.
Ropar:
- Ropar is located on Sutlej.
- The excavations have yielded five-fold sequence of cultures — Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval.
- The evidence of burying a dog below the human burial is veryinteresting
- One example of rectangular mudbrick ‘chamber was noticed.
Banwali:
- Like Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappa, Banwali also saw two cultural phases - pre-Harappan and Harappan.
- The town which shows marked differences in its town planning and drainage system from other Indus Valley Civilization sites is Banawali.
- A huge palace-like building has been found at Banawali.
- Human and animal figures, clay bangles and statue of mother Goddess found here.
- Here we find large quantity of barely, sesamum and mustard.
- A Tiger seal was found at Banawali. Deluxe pottery was discovered at Banawali.
Surkotada:

Excavations leveal a citadel and a lower town, both of which were fortified.
Horse bones have been found in Surkatoda.Ashes of a horse have been found in Suktagendor.

INDIAN HISTORY: Vedic Civilisation

THE VEDIC CIVILISATION:
- The people who involved this culture called themselves Aryas or Aryans.
- As per the theory propagated by late Bal Gangadhar Tilak the original home of Aryans was the Arctic region.However, the most widely accepted view is that the Aryans originated from Central Asia. The view which is accepted in West isthat original home of Aryans was in South-East Europe.
- The Aryans who entered India are known as the Indo-Aryans. Their advent in India has been variously dated, from B.C. 5000 and even earlier to B.C. 1500. Though any accurate date is impossible to assign, some date between B.C. 2500 to B.C. 2000 seems to fulfill all conditions.

The Vedic Literature:
- The only source of information about the Aryans in India is the vast literature known as the Vedas.The word Veda comes from the root vid, to know. It means knowledge in general. It is specially applied to branch of literature which has been handed down by verbal transmission and is declared to be sacred knowledge or Sruti. Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based on hearing), which is distinct from Smriti (based on memory). The Vedas are four in number, namely, Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
- Rig Veda:A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly families.Written between 1700-1500 B.C. when Aryans were still in Punjab.It is divided into 10 Books or Mandalas. Books II to VII are considered the oldest. Book I, VIII and X seem to be later additions.
- Yajur Veda:Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns.
- Sama Veda: A collection of 1603 hymns. Except 99, all others were derived from Rig Veda.A collection of melodies.
- Atharva Veda: A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20 Kandas.Atharva Veda is a book of magical formula.
- The Veda consists of four different classes of literary compositions:
  1. the Mantra constitutes the oldest division of Vedic literature and is distributed in four Samhitas or collections known as the Rik, Sama, Yajus and the Atharva;
  2. Brahmanas are the secondclass of Vedic works. They are mainly prose texts containing observations on sacrifice;
  3. Aranyakas or forest texts are books of instruction to be given in the forest or writings meant for wooddwelling hermits;
  4. Lastly there are the Upnishads which are either embedded in the Aranyakas or form their supplements. The above named literary works are classed as Sruti, or revelation, and constitute the Vedic literature proper.
- Samhita: Samhita is the period of compilation of texts of Veda. In the Rigveda Samhita ther are 1017 to 1028 hymns or Sutras, which have been divided into 10 mandalas or chapters. In the Samveda samhita ther are only sacrificial hymns. The Yajurveda Samhita is the “Book of Sacrificial Prayers”, which lays down the procedure for the performance of sacrifice. There are two texts of Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda.
- Brahamanas : The Brahamanas are the first specimens of praise in the world. They mark the transition from the Vedic to later Brahmanical social order. Each Brahaman is connected to one Samhita.
- Aranakyas: Aranakyas are merely the concluding portions of the Brahmanas and only deal with mysticism and philosophy.
- Upanishadas: There are 108 Upanishads which were written by various sages between 800 and 500 B.C. They are anti-ritualistic and define the doctrine(A belief )of Karma (Action), Atman (Soul) and Gad (Brahma).The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Upanishads belong to Rig Veda. Chhandogya and Kena Upanishad belong to Sama Veda. Taittiriya. Katha and Svetasvatara Upanishad belong to the Krishna Yajur Veda. Brihadaranyaka and Isa belong to the Shukla Yajur Veda.Prasna. Mundaka and Mundukya belong to the Atharva Veda.
- Samhitas, Brahmanas and Upanishadds, Aranakyas ans Sutras are known as the three stages of development of Vedic literature. The later commentaries on the Vedas are known as Vedangas.
- The Rigveda is the oldest book in the World.

Ashramas:
- The ashrama system is found mentioned for the first time in the Aitareya Brahmana. Meant mainly for regulating the life of the male members of the higher castes, they consisted of four stages:
  1. Brahmacharin or student life;
  2. Grihastha or life of the householder;
  3. Vanaprastha or partial retirement and Sanyasin or complete retirement (ascetic life).

Kalpa Sutras:
- These are the treatises dealing with Vedic rituals on one hand, and with customary law on the other They are written in a laboriously compressed style, sometimes approaching the structure of algebraic formulas, unintelligible without the help of authoritative commentaries.
- With a view to conveying to the future generations the ancient and contemporary literature, the Aryan sages invented a special concise method called the Sutra style. Thus the massive Vedic texts were condensed into short, terse formulae, which could be easily remembered and transmitted orally - from father to son or from Guru to Shisya. Most of the Vedic literature was handed down orally in this manner.
- The Sutra literature is divided into three classes:
  1. Srauta Sutras -dealing with large public sacrifices.
  2. Griha Sutras: dealing with rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage etc.
  3. Dharma Sutras: explain social and local customs. which later on became the basis of Mann Smriti.

Vedangas:
- The Vedangas are class of compositions that are regarded less authoritative than Sruti and are styled Smriti.
- The Vedangas are six in number: Siksha(phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakaran (grammar), Nirukt (etymology), Chhand(metrics) and Jyotish (astronomy).
- Yaska’s Nirukta (5th century BC) is the oldest Indian linguistic text. Panini (পাণিনি ) wrote Ashtadhyayi (অষ্টাধ্যায়ী ) (4lhCentury BC) on Vyakaran.পাণিনি (সংস্কৃত: সংস্কৃত: पाणिनि, পারিবারিক নাম, অর্থ "পাণির বংশধর") ছিলেন একজন প্রাচীন ভারতীয় সংস্কৃত ব্যাকরণবিদ। তিনি খ্রিষ্টপূর্ব চতুর্থ শতাব্দীতে গান্ধার রাজ্যেরপুষ্কলাবতী নগরীতে বিদ্যমান ছিলেন।তিনি তাঁর অষ্টাধ্যায়ী (अष्टाध्यायी Aṣṭādhyāyī, অর্থাৎ "আট অধ্যায়") নামক সংস্কৃত ব্যাকরণ গ্রন্থের জন্য বিখ্যাত। এই গ্রন্থে তিনি সংস্কৃত রূপমূলতত্ত্বের ৩,৯৫৯টি নিয়ম অন্তর্ভুক্ত করেন। এই গ্রন্থটিবৈদিক ধর্মের প্রামাণ্য সহায়ক গ্রন্থ [[বেদাঙ্গ]|বেদাঙ্গের] ব্যাকরণ শাখার মূল গ্রন্থ।

Political Organisations:
- The basis of the political and social organisation of the Rig Vedic people was patriarchal family. The successive higher units were styled gram, vis and jan. The gram consisted of several families. The vis was a group in the form of collection of grams. The vis grew into a tribe or jana whose members were bound together by real or supposed ties of kinship.
- The people were divided into many tribes(jana). Each was under a king(Gopa). The king was primarily military leader who fought for cows not for teritory.
- The king ruled over his tribe and not over particular regions. Yet the idea of territorial monarchy emerged towards the close of Rigvedic Period.
- There was no regular tax, the king was entitled to booty from successful cattle raids or battles. In the later Vedic period the king received regular contributions from the people in the shape bali and shulka. An official called bhagadugha collected the royal share of produce.
- Hereditary monarchy was the normal mode of government. The king was helped by a number of functionaries of whom those frequently mentioned in the Rigveda are the Senani(military commander appointed by king), Gramani(village officer) and Purohita or the chaplain who was the most important state official.
- In the early vedic period King's authority was substantially limited by by the tribal assemblies especially the sabha and the samiti. Sabha was a council of the elder members of the tribe and Samithi was a general tribal assembly and less exclusive than Sabha.
- In the later vedic period, Kings ruled over teritories (janapada) and not over nomadic groups moving from place to place. Popular assemblies lost importance, and royal power increased at their cost.
- We hear of twelve ratnin appointed by the king. The list includes samagrahitri ( royal treasurer), bhagadugha (collector of taxes), kshattri (chamberlain), akshavapa (superintendent of gambling), govikartana( king's companion of chase), purohit(priest) etc. But there were no standing army.
Social Life:
- The basic unit of Aryan tribal society was the patriarchal family. The master of the house was called the grihapati or dampati and the father had the power over the life and limb of the children.
- The Rigveda certainly permits polygamy though monogamy may have been the rule. The birth of a son was the common desire of the people. But woman also had important position in it. Remarriage of widow were allowed and child marraige was not prevented. The custom of upanayanam উপনয়ন of girls prevailed and the women studied the vedic literature like men.
- The cloths were made cotton,deer skin or wool. The vedic costume seems to have consisted of three parts – an undergarments (nivi), a garment (paridhana) and a mantle ( drapi or adhivasa). Ornaments such as necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets and anklets, were used by both the sexes.
- The staple (a necessary commodity for which demand is constant) diet was milk and milk products, vegetables, fruits etc. Meat was taken , but the meat of cow was not taken because the slaying (Kill intentionally and with premeditation) of cow was gradually looked upon with disfavour as is apparent from the name aghnya applied to it. They drank distilled liquor or sura on ordinary occasions. During religious ceremonies the intoxicating juice of plant called soma was freely drunk.
- The houses were built of wood and reed and in every house there was fire-place(agnishala) besides a sitting room and apartments for the ladies.
- In the early Vedic period the division of society into three social classes was merely to facilitate social and economic organisation. There was no consciousness of caste. Professions were not hereditary. The three Aryan social classes were known by Dwija or twice-born.
- The word ‘Varna’ is used in the Rig Veda with reference to only the Aryan or Dasa having respectively, fair or dark complexion, but never with reference to the Brahmana or Kshatriya.
- Society in the Later Vedic Period became increasingly complex and came to be divided into four Varnas - Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. The upper three varnas were known as the Dvijas (twice born).
- The upper three varnas were entitled to ‘upanayana’ or investiture with the sacred thread. The status of the brahamanas increased because of the increasing importance and complexity of the rituals.
- Kshatriyas constituted the warrior class. Majority of the rulers belonged to this class.
- The Vaisyas was the only producing class in the society.
- The Sudras were supposed to serve the three high varnas and formed the bulk of the labouring masses.
- During late Vedic period, Vratyas and the Nishads were two important bodies of men outside the regular castes. The Vratyas were Aryans outside the pale of Brahminism. The Nishads were non-Aryan people who lived in their own villages and had their own rulers.
- Ashramas, these stages were presented by:
  - Brahmachari: studentship.
  - Grihastha: householder
  - Vanaprastha: partial retirement from householding life in the forest.
  - Sanyasa: complete retirement, ascetics.
- In the Later Vedic Period, women lost rights of attending assemblies. Women were generally given a lower position. Child marriage came into vogue. Cohabitation of a childless widow with her husband's brother until the birth of a son( niyoga ).

Economic Conditions:
- In early vedic period cattle-rearing remained Aryan's main occupation. Among all cattle, pride of place was reserved for cow. The cow seems to be the most important form of wealth.The term for war in Rig Veda is Gavishthi or search for cows. Those who lived with their cows in the same cow-shed came to belong to the same gotra. Duhitri is a word for daughter, which literally means one who milks cows.The term Aghanya, or not to be killed has been used for cow. This indicated cow’s economic importance. Guests were called Goghana, which indicates that beef was offered to them. Cow was the chief medium of exchange and even fine was awarded in terms of cows. among other domesticated anomals were draught-ox, horse, dog, goat, ass and sheep.
- In early vedic period evidence for agricultural are less strong. The hala or plough is not found, but two other terms for plough, langal(নাঙল) and sira, are mentioned. The only one varity of grain called yava (barley). They did not have knowledge of iron.
- In the later vedic period agriculture was the chief means of livelihood. Canals were excavated (Recover through digging) to help agriculture and the use of manure was also known. In addition to yava, the chief cultivation was wheat, rice, beans, cottons and oilseeds were also known. Cultivated fields were known as Urvara a Kshetra.
- Copper was one of the first metals to be used by the Aryans. Leather work. Pottery and carpentry made great progress. Weaving was confined to women. Carpenter was an honoured profession. among the other profession may mentioned those of dancer , barber (A hairdresser who cuts hair and shaves beards as a trade) and vintner (Someone who makes & sells wine).
- In the early Vedic period, the trade and commerce was largely controlled by a people called Pani. The standard of unit of value was the cow, but necklets of gold(nishka) also served as a means of exchange.
- In the later Vedic period trade and industry flourished and a class of hereditary merchants( vanija) came into being. Commerce was facilitated by the use of convenient units of value like the nishka, shatamana and krishnala. Merchants were probably organized into guild, as appears from references to ganas or corporations and the shreshthins or alderman. The sea was known intimately and the mention of the legend of the flood in the Satapatha Brahmana is taken to point to intercourse with Babylon.

Religion:

The early Vedic religion has been designated by the name of henotheism or kathenotheism (a belief in single gods, each standing out as the highest). They worshiped various powers and manifestations of nature.

Father Dyaus, the shinning god of heaven, and mother Prithvi, the earth goddess, are among the oldest of the vedic deities. The worship of Varuna, the encompassing sky, in the early Vedic age is one of the first roots of the later doctrine of Bhakti.

Indra, the God of Thunder and Rain, the most popular of the Gods, was given the largest number of hymns. Besides Varuna and Indra, there were the Maruts(storm Gods), Vayu and Vata( the Wind Gods), Rudra(the Howling God of Storm and Lightening) and Parjanya(God of rain). Agni- he was priests of god and god of priests. Next in importance to Agni came Soma- he was the god of plants and an intoxicating drink is named after him.

Yama-The first man to die, who became the guardian of the world of dead.

Saraswati was the river deity who came to be regarded later as the Goddess of learning. Pushan was the guardian of roads, herdsmen and straying cattle.

There were neither temples nor altars, neither images nor hereditary priests. The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras.

In the Later Vedic Period sacrifices occupied a prominent place in the rituals. The sacrificial rites tended to increase the power of the priest, without whom the sacrifice itself could not take place and it simultaneously led to a decrease in the authority of the kings. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spiritual up-liftment or misery.

Indra and Agni lost their importance and the Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position. Rudra and Vishnu also became important. Pushan became the God of Shudras.

An elaborate system of Yajnas developed. Among the important ones were—Rajasuya, Ashvamedha and Vajapeya.

Rajasuya: The King’s influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.

Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for 3 days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed.

Vajapeya: A King performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen (a case of match-fixing!). The ritual lasted for 17 days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position of Raja to that of Samrat.

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MAHAJANAPADAS:
- The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism. Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention, amongst other things, sixteen states known as mahajanapadas.
- Janapada, meaning the land where a jana (a people, clan or tribe) sets its foot or settles. It is a word used in both Prakrit and Sanskrit.
- These Mahajanapadas extended from the north-western Pakistan to east Bihar and from submontane region of the Himalayas to the river Godavari in the South.
- According to Anguttara Nikaya, they were –
  1. Anga (East Bihar).
  2. Magadha (South Bihar)
  3. Kasi (Benaras)
  4. Kosala (Oudh)
  5. Vriji (North Bihar)
  6. Malla (Gorakhpur district,UP)
  7. Chedi (between Yamuna and Narmada)
  8. Vatsa (Allahabad region)
  9. Kuru (Thanesar(Thanesar is an old and historic town on the banks of the Sarsawati Ghaggar river in the state of Haryana in northern India. It is located in Kurukshetra District), Delhi and Meerut districts,UP)
  10. Panchal (Bareilly, Buduan and Farrukhabad districts)
  11. Matsya (Jaipur)
  12. Surasena (Mathura)
  13. Asmak (on the Godavari)
  14. Avanti (in Malwa)
  15. Gandhara (Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts) and
  16. Kamboj (South-west Kashmir and parts of Kafiristan)
- These Mahajana padas were either monarchical or republican in character.
- The Mahajanapadas of Anga, Kashi, Kosala, Chedi, Vatsa, Matsya, Shursen, Ashmak, Avanti, Gandhar and Magadha were ruled by kings or monarchs. The kings in these states had the supreme authority.

The Mahajanapadas of Vrijji, Malla, Kuru. Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga and Moriya. These republican states had a Ganaparishad or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This Gana-parishad had the supreme authority in the state.

The four kingdoms of later Vedic age who grew most powerful were: Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha. The kingdom of Avanti had its capital at Ujjain in modern Malwa.

One prominent ruler of Vatsa territory was Udayana, a scion (descendant) of the Bharat race. Kosala had its capital at Ayodhya and was ruled by a dynasty that claimed descent from illustrious Ishvaku, famed in Vedic and epic traditions. The Kosalas extended their boundaries in several directions, including Nepalese Tarai, but their ambitious designs were frustrated by Magadha power.

Magadhan ascendancy began with Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. He married the princesses of Kosala, Vaishali and Madia, which helped him in his expansionist policy. His one and only conquest was that of Anga. He also gained a part of Kashi as (he dowry in his marriage with the sister of King Prasenajit of Kosala. Bimbisara was murdered by his own son. Ajatasatru (492-460 BC). He defeated Prasenajit, married his daughter, and annexed Kashi. The capital of Bimbisar's kingdom was Girivraja. It was girded with stone walls which are among the oldest extant stone structuresin India.

Gautama Buddha and Vardhaman Mahavira preached their doctrines during the reign of Bimbisara.

The modern town of Rajgir in the Patna district was built by Bimbisara. He had named it Rajagriha or the king's house.

Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), who founded the new capital at Pataliputra.

The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Sishunaga dynasty, which destroyed the power of Avanti and incorporated it in the Magadhan empire. Thus, the 100-year-old rivalry between Avanti and Magadha came to an end. They temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali. The last ruler was Kalasoka who was murdered by the founder of Nandas.

The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas. Who annexed Kalinga to the empire. Mahapadma Nanda was the most important king of his dynasty. The Nandas are said to have checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha. Their rule was supplanted by that of the Mauryas.

Mahapadam Nanda was the most powerful ruler. According to the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, he conquered Kalinga and also annexed Koshala which had rebelled against him.

Dhana-Nanda was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of a new and more illustrious dynasty.

The armies of the period usually consisted of infantry (পদাতিক), cavalry(অশ্বারোহী), chariots and elephants.

The oldest source of revenues was the bali. Bhaga, the king's share of reaped corn, became the most important source of State revenue in course of time. Among the most important revenue officials was the Grama-bhojaka or village head-man.

The chief articles of trade during the Magadhan era were: silk, muslin, embroidery, ivory, jewellery and gold. The standard unit of value was the copper Karsha-pana, weighing a little more than 146 grains. Silver coins, called Purana or Dharana, were also in circulation.

The early Magadhan period saw development of variant languages from Sanskrit. In the towns and the villages a popular form of Sanskrit, Prakrit, was spoken. This had local variations; the chief western variety was called Shauraseni and the eastern variety Magadhi. Pali was another local language.
Bimbisara >> Ajatasatru >> Udayin
Persian and Macedonian Invasions :

Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenian empire of Persia, destroyed the famous city of Kapisa near the junction of the Ghorband and Panjshir rivers northeast of Kabul and occupied Ghandhara in 530 B.C

The successor of Cyrus, Darius sent a naval expedition to the Indus under the command of Skylax. This expedition paved the way for the annexation of the Indus valley as far as the deserts of Rajputana.

Once the Persian hold over Indian possessions became weak, the old territory of Gandhara was divided into two parts. To the west of Indus river lay the kingdom of Pushkalavati in the modern district of Peshawar; to the east was Takshasila in present district of Rawalpindi.

Alexander finally crossed Indus river in 326 B.C. using a bridge of boats. Ambhi, the king of Taxila gave him valuable help in this. Alexander;s march faced a major hurdle when it reached the banks of Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) river, near the town of Jhelum. Here he faced stiff resistance from Paurava king (Porus). Greek sources mention that Porus was defeated but was restored to his dominion as a vassal of Alexander.

Alexander wanted to continue his advance but his soldiers mutinied and refused to go beyond river Hyphasis (Beas) and he had to retreat.He returned to Babylon after a long and treacherous journey and died soon after in 323 B.C.

INDIAN HISTORY: Religious Movements

Religious Movements: The period between 7th and 5th century BC was a turning point in the intellectual and spiritual development of the ancient India. It was at this time that Jainism and Buddhism arose in India,each based on a distinctive set of doctrines and each laying down distinctive rules of conduct for attaining salvation.
Buddhism:Gautama Buddha was born as Siddhartha to Suddhodana, a Raja or noble of Kapilvastu (in the Nepal Terai to the north of Basti district of Uttar Pradesh) and Maya, a princess of Devadaha, a small town in the Sakya territory. Maya died while giving birth to Siddhartha and he was brought up by his aunt and step-mother Prajapati Gautami.

Born in 563 BC (widely accepted), on the vaisakha purnima day at Lumbini, near Kapilvastu, capital of the Sakya republic.

Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula. Yashodara was also known as Bhadda Kachchana, Subhadraka, Bimba or Gopa.

The Great Renunciation (also called ‘Mahabhinishkramana') took place when Sidhartha reached the age of 29. For six years he lived as a homeless ascetic. At Uruvila he practiced the most rigid austerities only to find that they were of no help to him to achieve his goal.

Sidhartha finally sat under a pipal or Banyan tree at modern Bodh Gaya, after taking a bath in the stream of river Nairanjana, modern Lilajan. Here he attained the supreme knowledge and insight and became known as Buddha or the Enlightened One, Tathagata ( who attained the truth) and Sakya-muni or the sage of the Sakya clan.

Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called ‘Dharmachakra-pracartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.

Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the age of 80 in the Malla republic.

Five Great Events of Buddha’s Life and their Symbols:
- Birth: Lotus and Bull
- Great Renunciation(আত্মত্যাগ): Horse
- Nirvana: Bodhi tree
- First Sermon(ধর্মাপদেশ): Dharmachakra or wheel
- Parinirvana or Death: Stupa

Buddhist Councils:
- The first Council was held in 483 BC at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha রাজগৃহ during the tome of Ajatasatru of Magadha, to compile the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka. It was presided by Mahakassapa.
- The second council was held at Vaisali in 383 BC during the time of Kalasoka of Magadha under the presidentship of Sabakami. The monks of Vaisali wanted some change in the rites. It is led to the division of Sangha into orthodox Theravadians and unorthodox Mahasan-ghikas.
- The third council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka. 236 years after the death of Buddha. It was held under the Presidentship of Moggliputta Tissa to revise the scriptures.it led to the final compilation of tripitakas.
- The fourth council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashmir under the President ship of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha and resulted in the division of Buddhists into Mahayanists and Hinayanists.

Buddhist Scriptures:
- According to Sri Lankan tradition, the sacred texts and commentaries were written down in books in first century B.C. during the reign of King Vattagamani Abhaya. Later, the texts, as distinguished from the commentaries, came to be known as Pali.
- The Vinaya Pitaka: (a) mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated, (b) it describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha. © An account of the life and leaching of the Buddha is also given.
- The Sutra Pitaka: (a) Consists chiefly of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions, (b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda. Moggalana and others are also included in it. © It lays down the principles of Buddhism.
- The Abhidhamma Pitaka: Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s teachings, (b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly are.
- The Khandhakas: contain regulations on the course or life in the monastic order and have two sections - the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The thud part - the Parivara is an insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk.
- Among the non-canonical literature Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are important. The later two are the great chronicles of Ceylon.

Four Noble Truths:
- Buddha taught his followers the four “Noble Truths” (Arya Satya) concerning suffering, the cause of suffering, the destruction of suffering and the way that leads to the destruction of sorrow.
  1. The world is full of sorrows.
  2. Desire is root cause of sorrow.
  3. If Desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed. Desire can be removed by following the eight-fold path.

Eight Fold Path:
- As per Buddhist teachings, salvation is possible through the Eightfold Path, which consisted of eight principles of action, leading to a balanced, moderate life (right views, resolves, speech conduct, livelihood, effort, recollection and meditation, the combination of which was described as Middle Way).
  1. Right understanding
  2. Right speech
  3. Right livelihood
  4. Right mindfulness
  5. Right thought
  6. Right action
  7. Right effort
  8. Right concentration

Three Ratnas:
- Buddha
- Dhamma
- Sangha

Sacred Shrines:
- Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya. Sarnath and Kusinagar, where the tour principal events of the Buddha’s life, namely, Birth, Enlightenment. First sermon and Mahaparinirvana took place. To these are added tour places Sravasti, Rajgriha. Vaishali and Sankasya—these eight places have all along been considered as the eight holy places (ashtamahasthanas).
- Other centres of Buddhism in Ancient India—Amravati and Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in Bihar; Junagadh and Valabhi in Gujarat; Sanchi and Bharhut in MP; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharashtra, Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kannauj,Kausambi and Mathura in U.P. and Jagadala and Somapuri in West Bengal.
- Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz. (a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are preserved) (b) Chaitya(prayer hall) © Vihara (residence)

Buddhist Philosophy:
- Idealism: Two source of valid knowledge: (a) Perception and (b) Inference.
- Doctrine of dependent origination (Pratisamutpada): Central theory of Buddhist Philosophy. It tells us that in the empirical world dominated by the intellect, everything is relative, conditional. dependent, subject to birth and death and therefore impermanent.
- Theory of momentariness (Kshanabhanga or Impermanence): It tells that everything ,in this world is merely a conglomeration of perishable qualities. According to it. Things that can produce effect exist and whatever can not produce effect has no existence.

According to Jaina tradition, there were 24 Tirthankaras( religious teacher). Rishabha was the first one. Arishtanemi or Neminatha was the twenty second. Parsvanatha was the twenty third who was the son of king Asvasena of Varanasi.

Life of Mahavira: Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara. Born in 540 BC at Kundagrama near Vaisali. The parents of Mahavira were Siddhartha, a Janatrika chief of Kundapura, and Trishala, a Kshatriya lady related to the ruling families of Vaishali and Magadha and Jameli was the daughter.

At the age of 30, he left his home and began to wander as a naked monk. At the age 0f 42, Mahavira attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala-jnana, on the northern bank of river Rijupalika, outside Jrimbhikagrama, a little known locality in eastern India. He was now known as a Kevalin (omniscient), a Jina (conqueror) and Mahavira (the great hero).

Mahavira became the head of a sect called Nigranthas (free from Fetters), known in later times as Jains or followers of Jina (conqueror).

Mahavira died at Pava in south Bihar, after wandering for 35 years as a religious teacher, at the age of 72.

The 23rd teacher, Parsav, the immediate predecessor of Mahavira, was a prince of Benaras and enjoined on his disciples the great four vows of non-injury, truthfulness, abstention from stealing and non-attachment. Mahavira added the vow of Brahamcharya or continence to this.

Mahavira had 11 disciples called Ganadharvas, heads of school. Only Arya Suddharma survived Mahavira and became the first “Thera”. During the reign of last Nanda ruler of Magadha, the Jain Church was ruled by two theras, Sambhutvijaya and Bhadrabahu.

Way to Nirvana (Three Ratnatraya):
- Right faith (Samyak vishwas)
- Right knowledge (Samyak jnan)
- Right conduct (Samyak karma)

Sacred Literature:
- The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a form of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi, and may be classified as follows:
  1. The twelve Angas
  2. The twelve Upangas
  3. The ten Parikarnas
  4. The six Chhedasutras
  5. The four Mulasutras.

Spread of Jainism:
- Jainism received patronage from the kings of the time, including Chandragupta Maurya. Udayin, successor of Ajatshatru was a devoted Jain. In the south, royal dynasties such as the Gangas, Kadambas. Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. In.Gujarat, patronage came from wealthy merchants.
- Kharavela, the ruler of Kalinga, was great patron of Jainis. He dedicated some caves for the use of Jaina monks in the Udaygiri hills.
- The concrete expression of Jainism’s religious zeal is seen all over the country in works of art and architecture. The 57-foot high statue of Gomateshvara atSravanabelagola in Mysore, erected in 983 or 984 AD is a marvel of its kind. The temples at Mount Abu and those at Palithana in Gujarat and Moodabidri and Karkala in the south make a rich contribution to the Indian heritage.

Jaina Councils:

By the end of fourth century BC, there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley leading to a great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South India (Sravana Belgola) along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya.They returned to the Gangetic valley after 12 years. The leader of the group, which stayed back at Magadha was Sthulabahu. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras (sky-clad or naked) and Svetambaras (white-clad).

First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas.

Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

During the centuries that followed, further splits took place amongst both the sections- the Digambaras and Svetambaras- the most important of them begins the one that renounced idol worship altogether and devoted itself to the worship of the scriptures. They are called Terapanthis among the Svetambaras and Samaiyas among the Digambaras.

INDIAN HISTORY: Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire: Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire. These include archaeological finds, especially sculpture.
- Also valuable are contemporary works, such as the account of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya), which survives in fragments.
- Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra, parts of which were probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally believed to be the minister of Chandragupta.
- Besides, the Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works.
- While these are useful, the inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded as amongst the most valuable sources.
- Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta describes how Chanakya won the diplomatic battle against the Nanda minister Rakshasa, how Rakshasa was compelled to work for Chandragupta and also how the Nandas were finally over thrown.

Chandragupta Maurya:
- Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the empire in 305 BC. His family is identified by some with the tribe of Moriya mentioned by Greeks. According to one tradition, the designation is derived from Mura, the mother or grandmother of Chandragupta, who was wife of a Nanda king.
- Buddhist writers represent Chandragupta as member of Kshatriya caste, belonging to the ruling clan of little republic of Pipphalivana, lying probably between Rummindei in the Nepalese Tarai and Kasai in the Gorakhpur district.
- Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of northern India was united.
- Chandragupta became a Jain and went to Sravanbelgola with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow starvation.
- Chandragupta was the protege of the Brahman, Kautilya or Chanakya, who was his guide and mentor, both in acquirnig a throne and in keeping it.
- Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus.

Bindusara:
- Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 B.C. To Greeks Bindusara was known as Amitrochates.
- A Greek named Deimachos was received as Ambassador of Greece in Bindusara's court.
- Bindusara extended Mauryan control in Deccan as far south as Mysore.
- Bindusar patronized Ajivikus.

Asoka:
- According to the Buddhist tradition, Asoka usurped the throne alter killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one. Radhagupta a Minister of Bindusar helped him in fratricidal struggle.
- During Bindusara's reign, Ashoka successively held the important viceroyalties of Taxila and Ujjain.
- Ashoka is referred to as Devanampiya (the beloved of gods) Piyadassi (of amiable appearance) in inscriptions.
- Under Asoka. the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole of the subcontinent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control.
- Asoka (ought the Kalinga war in 261 BC in the 9th years of his coronation. The king was moved by massacre in this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest. In oilier words, Bherighosha was replaced by Dhammaghosha.
- Asoka was not an extreme pacifist. He did not pursue the policy of peace for sake of peace under all conditions. Thus he retained Kalinga after its conquest and incorporated it into his empire.
- According to the Kashmir chronicle of Kalhana, Ashoka's favourite deity was Shiva. Ashoka claimed of spiritual conquest of the realms of his Hellenistic, Tamil and Ceylonese neighbours. Hellenistic neighbours of Ashoka were: Antiochos II (Theos of Syria), Ptolemy II (Philadelphos of Egypt), Antigonos (Gonatas of Macedonia), Magas (of Cyrene) and Alexander (of Epirus).
- After making deep study of Buddhist scriptures Ashoka started undertaking dharam-yatras (tours of morality) in course of which he visited the people of his country and instructed them on Dharma (morality and piety).
- Asoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. Its broad objective was to preserve the social order it ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show mercy to slave and servants.He held that if people behaved well they would attain Swarga (heaven). He never said that they would attain Nirvana, which was goal of Buddhist Teaching.
- During Ashok's reign the Buddhist church underwent reorganization, with the meeting of the third Buddhist Council at Patliputra in 250 B.C.
- Ashoka's son Prince Mahendra visited Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) as a Buddhist missionary and convinced the ruler of the island kingdom, Devanampiya Tissa to convert to Buddhism.
- Ashoka ruled for 37 years and died in 232 B.C. With his death a political decline set in, and soon after the empire broke up.
- As per the Puranic texts, the immediate successor of Ashoka was his son Kunala. The Chronicals of Kashmir, however, mention Jalauka as the son and successor. Kunalawas succeeded by his sons, one of whom, Bandhupalita, is known only in Puranas, and another, Sampadi, is mentioned by all traditional authorities. Then there was Dasratha who ruled Magadha shortly after Ashoka and has left three epigraphs in the Nagarjuni Hills in Bihar, recording the gift of caves to the Ajivikas.The last king of the Maurya dynasty was Brihadratha, who was overthrown by his commanderin- chief, Pushyamitra, who laid the foundation of the Sunga dynasty.

The Mauryan Administration:The establishment of elaborate bureaucracy appear to be a remarkable feature of the Mauryas.
- Central Administration:
  - The Mauryan government was a centralised bureaucracy of which the nucleus was the king.
  - The Arthshastra refers to the highest officers as the eighteen tirthas, the chief among them were the Mantrin (chief minister), Purohit (high priest),Yuvraja (heir-apparent) and Senapati (commander-in-chief).
  - The head of the judiciary was the king himself, but there were special tribunals of justice, headed by Mahamatras and Rajukas.
- Provincial Administration:
  - The empire was divided into a number of provinces. Probably, five. The northern province, called Uttarapatha had Taxila as its capital. Western province, known as Avantipatha had its capital in Ujjain. Prachyapatha with its capital Toshali (Kalinga) formed the Eastern province whileDakshinapatha with its capital Surarnagiri was the Southernmost province. Central province. Magdha, with its capital at Pataliputra, was the headquarters of the entire kingdom.
  - The terms used in the Ashokan edicts for provincial governors are Kumaraand Aryaputra. The former may have been the title of the sons of the king and later may have referred to close relatives.
- District Administration:
  - Provinces were sub-divided into districts for purposes of administration, and a group of officials worked in each district. In the inscriptions of Ashoka there are references to Rajukas and Pradesikas, charged with the welfare of Janapadas or country parts and Pradesas or districts.Mahamatras were charged with the administration of cities (Nagala Viyohalaka) and sundry other matters, and a host of minor officials, including clerks (Yuta), scribes (Lipikar) and reporters (Pativedaka).
- Urban Administration:
  - Urban administration had its own hierarchy offcials. Kautilya lays down in detail the duties of the Nagaraka which included maintenance of law and order, supervision of sanitation arrangement and to take measures against outbreaks of fire. The Nagaraka has under him subordinate officials called sthanika and gopa who were placed in charge of the wards into which the town was divided.
- Rural Administration:
  - The rural areas were governed by Gramika Head of a village. He was generally elected by the people. He was not a paid servant.
- Military Administration:
  - The most striking feature of Mauryan military administration was maintanence of a huge army.They also maintained a Navy.According to Megasthenes the administration of Army was carried by a board of 30 officers divided into six committees, each committee consisting of 5 members. They are:
    1. Army
    2. Cavalry
    3. Elephants
    4. Chariots
    5. Navy
    6. Transport
  - Beside this Ashoka appointed Dhammamahamatra, the most important official entrusted with establishing and promoting Dhamma. Authorized to tour and alleviate the woes of people.
Arthashastra:
- Arthashastra, written by Chandragupta Maurya’s Prime Minister Chanakya, primarily delves into the statecraft and administration.The Arthashastra has 15 adhikarnas or books. Of which, the first five deal with tantra or internal administration of the state, eight deal with avapa or its relations with neighboring stales, and the last two are miscellaneous in character.

Economy:
- In order to raise resources to meet the heavy expenditure on an ever increasing bureaucracy and huge standing army, the Mauryan state founded new settlements. The shudras for the first time were aided by the state in settling down as farmers in the settlements. In the newly- settled areas, which formed the crown land or crown village(sita), land was granted to retired village officials and priests.
- The state controlled almost all economic activities.The chief sources of revenue were the bhaga and the bali. The bhaga was the king's share of the produce of the soil, which was normally fixed at one-sixth, though in special cases it was raised to one-fourth or reduced to one-eighth. Bali was an extra impost levied on special tracts for the subsistence of certain officials. Taxes on the land were collected by the Agronomoi who measured the land and superintended the irrigation works.
- In urban areas the main sources of revenue were birth and death taxes, fines and tithes on sales. Arthshastra refers to certain high revenue functionaries styled the samaharti and the sannidharti.
- The state also provided irrigation facilities and charged water-tax.Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale and they were collected at gate.The slate enjoyed monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc.
- During Mauryan period, the punch marked coins were the common units of transactions.The copper coin of eighty ratis (146.4 grs) was known as Karshapana. The name was also applied to silver and gold coins, particularly in south.
- Tamralipti m the Gangetic delta was the most prosperous port on the East Coast of India.Broach was a major port during the Mauryan period.

Society:
- Megasthenes had mentioned 7 castes in Mauryan society. They were philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and councilors.
- Slavery was an established institution during the Maurya period.
- Varna (caste) and ashram (periods of stages of religious discipline), the two characteristic institutions of the Hindu social polity, reached a definite stage in the Maurya period.

Art & Architecture: The Mauryas were famous for their art and architecture.
- The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on large scale.Fragments of stone pillars and slumps indicating the existence of an 80-pillared hall have been discovered at Kumarhar on outskirts of Patna.The pillars represent the Masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone. only their capitals which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in form of lion or bulls are joined with pillar on the top.
- The most important art remains are animal capitals of the pillars, single Lion capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh, single bull capital at Rampurva, four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi.
- The Mauryan artisans also started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. the earliest example are Barabar caves in Gaya.
- Stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrine (he relics of Buddha). Of these, the most famous are at Sanchi and Bui hut.

Ashokan Inscriptions:
- Ashoka used the mediumof his edicts to expound the policy of Dhamma. These inscriptions are inscribed on rocks, pillars and cave.
- The Ashokan inscriptions were in local script. Those found in northwest, in the region of Peshawar, are in the Kharoshthi script (derived from Aramaic script used in Iran), near modern Kandhar, the extreme west of empire, these are in Greek and Aramaic, and elsewhere in India these are in the Brahmi script.
- MAJOR ROCK EDICTS:
  - Manshera - Hazara, Pakistan
  - Shahbazgarhi - Peshawar, Pakistan
  - Girnar (Junagarh) - Gujarat
  - Sopara - Thana, Maharashtra
  - Yerragudi - Kurnool, A.P
  - Jaugarh or Jaugada - Ganjam, Orissa
  - Dhauli - Puri, Orissa
  - Kalsi - Dehradun, Uttrakhand
- MINOR ROCK EDICTS :
  - Ahraura - U.P.
  - Sahasram - Bihar
  - Rupnath - M.P.
  - Gujjarra - M.P.
  - Panguraria (Budhni)- M.P.
  - Bhabru - Rajasthan
  - Bairat - Rajasthan
  - Yerragudi - Andhra Pradesh
  - Maski - Andhra Pradesh
  - Rajul-Mandagiri - Andhra Pradesh
  - Govimath - Karnataka
  - Palkigundu - Karnataka
  - Siddhapur - Karnataka
  - Jatinga-Rameshwar - Karnataka
  - Brahmagiri - Karnataka
  - Udayagolam - Karnataka
  - Mittur - Karnataka
  - Sannatai - Karnataka
  - New Delhi - Amarpuri colony of Lajpat Nagar
  - Bahapur - New Delhi.
- PILLAR EDICTS:
  - Delhi –Topara
  - Delhi – Meerut
  - Lauriya – Araraj – Bihar
  - Lauriya – Nandangarh – Bihar
  - Rampurva
  - Prayag – Kaushmbi – U.P.
- Minor Pillar Edicts :
  - Rummindei - Nepal border
  - Nigliva-Sagar - Nepal, near Rummindei
  - Sanchi - M.P.
  - Sarnath - U.P.
  - Prayag - U.P. (Warning to monks)
  - Queen’s Edict - Prayag
- CAVE EDICTS:
  - Ashoka’s Edicts have been located in the caves in the Barabar Hills (old name Khallitak and Pravaragizi), which were donated to Ajivikas. These caves are called – Sudama, Karnachopar and Vishwajhonpadi.
  - A cave of Lomash Rishi was also found here but with no inscriptions.
  - Dusharatha’s Cave Edicts: In the Ajivika caves in the Nagarjuni Hills which were called – Gopi, Vapi and Vadathik.

Diamond

Mine	State	Owner
Bunder Project	Madhya Pradesh
Golkonda	Andhra Pradesh

Mine	State	Owner
Bunder Project	Madhya Pradesh
Golkonda	Andhra Pradesh
Kollur Mine	Andhra Pradesh
Panna	Madhya Pradesh	National Mineral Development Corporation

Iron Ore

Mine	State	Owner
Mayurbhanj	Orissa
Kendujhar	Orissa
Durg	Chhattisgarh
Singhbhum	Jharkhand	SAIL
Bailadilla	Chhattisgarh	National Mineral Development Corporation, Ltd. (NMDC)
Dalli-Rajhara	Chhattisgarh	Bhilai Steel Plant (BSP)

Manganese[edit]

Mine	State
Sundergarh	Orissa
Balaghat	Madhya Pradesh
Nagpur	Maharashtra
Shimoga	Karnataka

Copper

Mine	State	Associated town	Owner
Hazaribagh	Jharkhand
Singhbhum	Jharkhand
Khetri	Rajasthan
Udaipur	Rajasthan
Amarkantak	Madhya Pradesh

Bauxite

Mine	State	Associated town	Owner
Katni	Madhya Pradesh
Bilaspur	Chhattisgarh
Koraput	Orissa
Kalahandi	Orissa
Sambalpur	Orissa
Lohardaga	Jharkhand

Coal

Mine	CITY	Associated town	Owner
	e
Jharia	Jharkhand
Bokaro	Jharkhand
Raniganj	West Bengal
Korba	Chhattisgarh
Talcher	Orissa
Singareni	Andhra Pradesh	Khammam
Neyveli	Tamil Nadu

Oil

Mine	State	Associated town	Owner
Digboi	Assam		Indian Oil Corporation
Kalol	Gujarat
Ankleshwar	Gujarat
Bassian
Bombay High	Maharashtra

Apropos the point made by Naipaul, here is a list of the major temples plundered and/or demolished by Turks and Mughals.
Place	Year	Attacked By
Mathura	1018	Mahmud of Ghazni
Kanauj	1018	Mahmud of Ghazni
Somnath	1025	Mahmud of Ghazni
Varanasi	1192	Muhammad of Ghor
Varanasi	1194	Qutb-ud-din Aibak
Devagiri	1296	Alauddin Khalji
Somnath	1299	Alauddin Khalji
Devagiri	1307	Alauddin Khalji
Warangal	1309	Malik Kafur
Madurai	1311	Malik Kafur
Srirangam	1311	Malik Kafur
Chidambaram	1311	Malik Kafur
Puri	1361	Feroze Shah Tughlaq
Ayodhya	1528	Mir Baki
Hampi	1565	Bahmanid Sultans
Varanasi	1669	Aurangzeb
Mathura	1670	Aurangzeb

Year	Place	Winner	Loser
			.
712	Raor	Muhammad bin Qasim	Dahir
Result: Arabs won Sindh
			.
1001	Peshawar	Mahmud of Ghazni	Jayapala
Result: Turks won Punjab
			.
1192	Tarain	Muhammad of Ghor	Prithviraj Chauhan
Result: Turks won north India
			.
1527	Khanua	Babur	Rana Sanga
Result: Mughals won north India
			.
1556	Panipat	Akbar	Hemu
Result: Mughals retook north India
			.
1565	Talikote	Bahmani sultanates	Vijayanagara Empire
Result: Last great Hindu kingdom was destroyed
			.
1746	Madras	French	Anwar-ud-din (Carnatic)
Result: Showed Europe's military superiority over India
			.
1757	Plassey	East India Company	Siraj-ud-daula (Bengal)
Result: British won east India
			.
1761	Panipat	Ahmed Shah Abdali	Marathas
Result: Maratha power was shattered
			.
1764	Buxar	East India Company	Mir Qasim (Bengal)
			Shuja-ud-daula (Awadh)
			Shah Alam (Delhi)
Result: British became the most powerful force in India

General Studies

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Monday, December 2, 2013

History-mm

Rape Of Temples

The Most Important Battles in India's History

Monday, November 18, 2013

Current Affairs Questions from census 2011

Thursday, November 14, 2013

Indian History WBCS

HISTORY: Indus Valley Civilization

INDIAN HISTORY: Vedic Civilisation

INDIAN HISTORY: Religious Movements

Jainism:

INDIAN HISTORY: Maurya Empire